Rwanda

Country information - August 2000

• Physical features and climate
• Recent history
• Political overview
• Political structure
• Economic overview
• Foreign policy
• Australia-Rwanda Relations
• Outlook for 2000

Physical Features and Climate

Rwanda is one of the most densely populated nations in the world. The 1991 census records 272 inhabitants per square kilometre. Known as the "land of 1000 hills", Rwanda consists of a series of sharply defined hills, with steep slopes and flat ridges, which are intersected by steep valleys, the bottoms of which are often marshy plains. The steep gradients are covered by a soil poor in quality due to its fineness and fragility.

Rwanda is bordered by Uganda in the north, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in the west, Tanzania in the east and Burundi in the south. The north is dominated by a chain of volcanoes, the Virunga, whose highest peak is Karisimbi (4,519m). Lake Kivu lies along the northwestern border.

The climate is tropical, but tempered by altitude. The capital, Kigali, has an average temperature of 19°C. Average rainfall (785 mm) is barely sufficient for agriculture. Rwanda has two wet and two relatively dry seasons, making two harvests possible.

The official languages are French, English and Kinyarwanda.

Recent History

Current events in Rwanda must be considered in the context of several centuries of Hutu-Tutsi interaction. It is generally accepted that there are three distinct groups in Rwanda: the indigenous Twa or pygmies (1%) who inhabited the country's rainforests for thousands of years and lived as hunter-gathers; the Hutu (85-90%) - a Bantu people who established an agricultural society in the region between the fourth and seventh centuries AD; and the Tutsi (9-15%).

According to some historians, the Tutsi developed from the Hutu as a cattle-owning class; Others believe the Tutsi arrived in the region as pastoralists in the 11th or 12th century AD. Despite their lesser numbers, the Tutsi have traditionally dominated the Hutu both socially and economically.

Germany ruled Rwanda and Burundi from 1903 until its defeat in World War I when Belgium took over the administration under a League of Nations mandate. Belgian policies - such as replacement of Hutu chiefs with Tutsis and giving Tutsis preferential access to education - strengthened Tutsi dominance.

In the early 1950s, Belgium began experimenting with limited democratic reforms. This led to pressure from the Hutu majority for greater political power. The first recorded massacre of the Tutsi by the Hutu was the "peasant revolt" of November 1959 - a Hutu uprising which drove more than 130,000 Tutsis into exile, mainly to Uganda and Burundi. This period saw a revolutionary transition from a Tutsi-dominated monarchy to a Hutu-led republic.

Rwanda became independent on 1 July 1962.

The Tutsi diaspora

From the earliest years of independence, Tutsi refugees living in neighbouring countries have made armed incursions into Rwanda. These have been successively repulsed but have led to retaliation against the Tutsi population living in Rwanda.

Tutsis left Rwanda during a number of successive crisis (most notably: 1959-61; 1963-64 and 1973). By the 1990s, the total number living outside Rwanda was estimated to be about 600,000.

The recurring ethnic strife and the Government policy prohibiting the return of exiles, culminated in a large-scale armed invasion of Rwanda in 1990 by the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF), a group of mostly Ugandan-based Tutsi refugees. The RPF was pushing for inclusion in government and the right of return for all exiles. The invasion precipitated the internal displacement of nearly 1 million Hutus into government-held territory in Rwanda.

In 1992, the RPF commenced negotiations in Arusha, Tanzania, with the Hutu-led Government. The outcome - the 1993 Arusha Accords - promised a transitional government which would include RPF members in key portfolios and a new national army composed of Rwandan military and the RPF in roughly equal portions. The United Nations deployed 2,500 troops to help implement the agreement.

Genocide (1994)

On 7 April 1994, the then Hutu President, Juvenal Habariymana, was killed when his plane was shot down. It has never been determined who was responsible for the act but it is widely believed to have been the work of Hutu extremists opposed to sharing power with the RPF. On the same day in Kigali, a rump Hutu extremist government was proclaimed, and the elimination of Tutsis and Hutu moderates began on a massive scale. While the exact numbers will never be known, it is estimated that around 800,000 people were killed in a period of about 100 days. The UN withdrew all but 270 of its troops. Those that stayed had no mandate to intervene in the killings. The scale and speed of the action has lead to a strong belief that the killings were highly organised and politically motivated, and that the death of the President was simply the justification for the killings to begin. The UN had been informed some months earlier that large scale killings were planned but did not take any firm action on the advice.

Refugee Crisis (1994-95)

During this period, the RPF renewed its offensive, taking power on 19 July 1994 and stopping the genocide. The RPF advance precipitated a mass exodus of Hutu: over 2 million people left Rwanda for Zaire, Tanzania and Burundi. Leaders of the former regime established control over the refugee camps, and through a mixture of intimidation and propaganda were able to prevent most of the refugees from returning to Rwanda.

Repatriation (1996-97)

Approximately 2 million mainly Hutu refugees returned to Rwanda in late 1996/early 1997. About 1.2 million returned voluntarily or were driven out of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) following the break up of refugee camps there by the RPF and forces of the AFDL (Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo Zaire led by Laurent Kabila). Others (about 500,000) returned from Tanzania.

War in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

Hutu militias (interahamwe and ex-FAR) aim to destabilize the RPF government by conducting armed incursions from bases in the eastern DRC. To counter this threat, Rwanda intervened in DRC on the side of Congolese rebels to remove former President Mobutu and install their protege, President Kabila. But Rwanda soon had a falling out with Kabila who, they claim, now supports the Hutu rebels.

In August 1998, Rwanda and Uganda again intervened militarily in the DRC - this time in an effort to remove President Kabila from power. But the effort to remove him was thwarted when Zimbabwe, Namibia, Angola and Chad intervened on Kabila's behalf. The result has been a protracted and complex conflict in the DRC involving many countries (see Foreign Policy below). Rwanda has made it clear that until the Hutu militias are disarmed, it will remain militarily engaged in DRC for national security reasons.

The conflict in the DRC continues to draw heavily on Rwanda's resources - in 1998, military expenditure was almost 20% greater than that for education or health.

The Lusaka Peace Accords (1999)

In August 1999, the Lusaka Peace Accords were signed. The agreement calls for disarmament, withdrawal of foreign forces and a national political dialogue. However, the various parties have not yet exhibited a commitment to the agreement: fighting is continuing. In addition, former allies, Uganda and Rwanda, have recently engaged in hostilities over their differing aims and strategies. This has drawn international criticism.

Political Overview

It is now some five years since some 800,000 Rwandans (Tutsis and moderate Hutus) were killed in one of the worst genocides in history. It is remarkable that despite these mass killings a Tutsi dominated rebel army was able to defeat the previous government and establish its own administration. The military force which took over the country was led by Paul Kagame. As the President, he remains the most powerful person in Rwanda.

Rwanda is still deeply traumatized and divided: it continues to face an insurgency from Hutu militia operating from bases in the east of the DRC, and is heavily dependent on aid to keep the economy afloat. It is, however, one of the key players in shaping events in central Africa.

The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) Government has focused on rebuilding the country following the 1994 genocide and reintegrating the large numbers of refugees who returned from the DRC (then Zaire) and Tanzania in 1996 and 1997. The RFP dominates Rwandan politics. Consisting largely of former refugees from Uganda who fought the former Rwandan government between 1990 and 1994 (see above), the party is predominantly English speaking and Tutsi. Recent high profile instability in the upper ranks of the government (including resignation of the former President, Speaker and Prime Minister) has led to claims that power is being increasingly concentrated in the hands of a small RPF elite.

The key challenge for Rwanda is to achieve national reconciliation. This will be difficult without corresponding economic growth and poverty alleviation. A Unity and Reconciliation Commission has recently been established to undertake grass roots reconciliation between Tutsi and Hutu. The Commission, headed up by a former Minister for Gender, Family and Social Affairs, Ms Aloisia Inyumba, is undertaking a series of consultations and educational workshops throughout the country. Australia has recently provided funding, under AusAID's Africa Governance Fund, to support the Commission's National Summit on Unity and Reconciliation planned for October 2000.

The government has also set up a National Human Rights Commission and a National Constitutional Commission. Nation-wide local government elections were held in 1999. However, the government faces several formidable challenges including the provision of justice for some 30,000 people imprisoned in connection with the genocide, repatriation and settlement of refugees, and the reintegration of former soldiers into the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA). Returnees as well as internally displaced persons are being resettled in special villages. The government claims that his makes it easier to provide them with basic security and basic educational and health services.

The Rwandan Government faces a central paradox: without reconciliation and peace, economic growth will be difficult to achieve; but high growth rates and reduced poverty levels are necessary to create a climate conducive to national reconciliation.

The task of bringing the perpetrators of the 1994 genocide to justice is formidable. More than 130,000 persons are in jail awaiting trial as suspects. Rebuilding the judicial system is thus one of the Government's key priorities. Trials began in December 1996. In April 1998, 22 people convicted of genocide were executed in public. This attracted international censure and although further death sentences have been brought down, there have been no further public executions.

In an effort to speed up justice, Rwanda is experimenting with traditional justice systems (gacaca). The UN Human Rights Commission's Special Representative recently expressed support for the gacaca system as the only viable alternative to ease overcrowding in the jails and promote reconciliation.

Controversy surrounds the role of the Catholic Church in the genocide of 1994. Roman Catholic Bishop Augustin Misago was recently aquitted by a Rwandan court of charges of genocide. But the Catholic Church has not yet provided an apology, nor conducted an enquiry into its role in the 1994 genocide.

Meanwhile, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) - based in Tanzania- has progressed slowly with its work. After much criticism, it recorded its first verdict in May 1998, finding the former Rwandan Prime Minister, Jean Kambanda, guilty of genocide. Judgements have now been handed down in 7 cases. These were the first judgements by any international court in the world for genocide.

Rwanda's relations with the ICTR deteriorated in late 1999 following the release of a genocide suspect by the Appeals Chamber on procedural grounds. Following intervention by the Chief Prosecutor, Carla del Ponte, and a new decision by the Appeals Court to overturn their previous ruling, relations have improved.

Political Structure

The current constitution was passed into law by the National Assembly in May 1995. It draws on the 1991 constitution (which legalised a multiparty system); the Arusha Accords of 1993 (see above); and agreements between some of the political parties made in late 1994.

A transitional Government of National Unity, formed along the lines of the Arusha Accords, was sworn in in July 1994. The new Government included members of the five major political parties, from both the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups (see below). Members of the National Assembly are appointed not elected. Political parties put forward candidates whom the President can reject or accept. The army and gendarmerie both have seats in the Assembly. The relationship between the Assembly and the government is still evolving. Subject to the agreement of two-thirds of the National Assembly, the President can dismiss cabinet ministers as well as the Prime Minister. The National Assembly can force ministerial resignations. In 1999, the Government extended its mandate for a further 5 years. National elections are due in 2003.

Political Parties

The Rwandan Government is made up of a coalition of parties but it is dominated by the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). While predominantly English-speaking and Tutsi, the RPF claims to be non-ethnic, democratic, inclusive and supportive of a powerful parliament with a weakened presidency. However the RPF also favours an indefinitely prolonged suspension of party political activity for reasons of security and "national unity".

The Democratic Republican Movement (MDR) is the RPF's major partner in government although its influence is debatable. The MDR's support is drawn mainly from among moderate Hutus. The other parties in the coalition, such as the Social Democratic Party and the Liberal Party, have even lower profiles than the MDR.

Army

The Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) consists almost entirely of RPF soldiers. It is an important political force whose views closely reflect those of the RPF. Despite the presence of a gendarmerie, the RPA also controls most of the internal security. The RPA is trying hard to win the allegiance of Hutus living in conflict-affected areas and has had some success but at times the savagery of its counter-insurgency operations is said to have an alienating effect.

Local Government

Rwanda is divided into Prefectures headed by a local Prefect appointed by the President. Each Prefecture is divided into Communes which are headed by a Bourgmeistre. Communes are divided into Sectors and then into Cells. Non-party political elections were held in March 1999at cellule and secteur level. Candidates were forbidden to campaign on ethnic, regional or religious grounds and voters had to line up behind their candidates on polling day. The Government claimed a 95% turnout and the polls drew a favourable reaction from international donors.

Economic Overview

Rwanda's economy is largely agriculture-based with agriculture accounting for 34% of GDP in 1998. Most of the population are subsistence farmers. Many of the subsistence farmers also cultivate coffee which is Rwanda's main export. Coffee accounts for around 50% of Rwanda's foreign exchange earnings. Tea is the second-largest export. There is a tiny industrial sector. The main industry is agricultural processing.

The Rwandan economy was devastated by the war of 1990-94 (see above), and the Government's overriding policy objective is economic recovery. The government has maintained macroeconomic stability, improved fiscal management and made progress on structural reform. This has resulted in solid economic growth and low inflation and the Government has had the support of the IMF and World Bank.

In July 2000, the IMF approved US$12.5 million for Rwanda, bringing the total disbursements under the three year structural adjustment program to around US$56 million. The World Bank is currently financing eight projects in Rwanda to the value of US$258 million. In 2000, it will provide a total of US$25 million in assistance, and expects to provide around US$125 million in 2001. The government has also gained the support of the international aid community. Provided reforms remain on track. Rwanda should qualify for debt relief under the HIPC initiative in 2001.

Notwithstanding this progress, the country faces deep-seated social, financial and economic problems. These include: widespread poverty and unemployment, diminishing land resources, low agricultural productivity, rapid population growth, poor health and education services, a high debt burden and a heavy dependence on foreign aid.

Key Economic Indicators (1998)

Rwanda's Foreign Policy

War in the Congo (DRC)

The Rwandan Government has been embroiled in a bitter military conflict in the DRC since August 1998 when it intervened in support of the Congolese rebel movement (the RCD) in an attempt to remove President Kabila from power. President Kabila was initially a protege of the Rwandans. They helped him to power in 1997 but relations soon soured and Rwanda now accuses Kabila of supporting Hutu rebels conducting an insurgency against Rwanda from bases in eastern DRC. Despite the signing of the Lusaka Peace Accords in 1999, peace in the DRC seems elusive. Rwanda has stated that it will not withdraw until rebel Hutu groups responsbile for the 1994 genocide are disarmed and brought to account for their crimes.

Uganda

Uganda traditionally had close relations with the current Rwandan regime. Many Rwandans who fled Rwanda in the 1950s and 1970s settled in Uganda. Some members of the current Rwandan Government were former members of President Museveni's National Resistance Movement. President Kagame and President Museveni had very close ties.

Uganda and Rwanda initially entered the war in the DRC as allies on the side of the Congolese rebels. In the past year, however, Ugandan and Rwandan troops have clashed in the DRC on several occasions resulting in a significant number of deaths on both sides. The conflict relates mainly to differences of over the aims and conduct of the war. Despite claims from both sides that their differences have been smoothed over, tension remains. It appears that a serious rift has developed between the two countries.

Burundi

In both Rwanda and Burundi a Tutsi dominated regime is in power. Both regimes are fighting insurgencies by extremist Hutu groups and events in one country have, in the past, usually impacted on the other. But Rwanda has been cautious about being seen to cooperate too closely with the Burundi Government which came to power in a 1996 coup. Rwanda also participated in the regional economic sanctions imposed against Burundi (lifted in 1999).

East Africa Relations

Relations with Tanzania are generally good but the movement of large numbers of refugees to Tanzania in the past has caused some tension. Most Rwandan refugees have now been repatriated from Tanzania (see above). Since 1996, a number of key members of the former Rwandan regime were arrested in Kenya and bought to trial. The arrests are part of a rapproachment between Rwanda and Kenya. Diplomatic relations, which were severed in 1996, have been restored. Rwanda is not yet a member of the East African Community (EAC) but the EAC has agreed in-principle to Rwandan membership at a later date.

The United Nations

Rwanda's relations with the United Nations are strained due to the UN's perceived failure to stop the 1994 genocide. Several recent enquiries into the causes of the genocide (UN and OAU) have been critical of the lack of action by the international community to prevent the genocide.

Australia-Rwanda Relations

Australian assistance

Australia provided aid to Rwanda during the 1994 genocide and the refugee crisis which followed. From 1993 to 1998 Australian aid amounted to approximately A$28.6 million. The bulk of this assistance was channelled through NGOs and UN agencies toward the improvement of social infrastructure and services in health and population, water supply and sanitation.

An Australian military Medical Support Force of around 300 went to Rwanda in August 1994. Much of its work was directed towards the reinstatement of health and other services for the returning refugees. The Force had a high profile through its work at the Central Hospital in Kigali - mainly assisting with surgery: gunshot and machete wounds, mine injuries and tropical diseases.

Unity and Reconciliation

Reconciliation is perhaps the most important issue facing Rwanda following the genocide. Australia recently provided approximately A$100,000 towards the Rwandan Unity and Reconciliation Commission under the Africa Governance Fund. The Commission is the key organisation charged with rebuilding the nation following the 1994 genocide.

Visit by the Hon Philip Ruddock

In January 1999, the Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, the Hon Philip Ruddock, visited Rwanda - the first visit by an Australian minister. He met with several Rwandan Ministers and visited a number of projects outside Kigali, together with a refugee camp for Congolese refugees. He laid wreaths at two genocide memorials and handed over an AusAID cheque for the construction of a market in a village for widows and orphans of the genocide.

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)

The ICTR was set up following the 1994 genocide to try the key perpetrators under international law. To date, 48 people have been indicted, 38 held in custody and 7 have been tried and sentenced - all of whom have appealed. In 1999/2000, Australia provided A$1.852 million as its assessed United Nations contribution to the ICTR.

Trade

Australia's trade relations with Rwanda are insubstantial. Australian exports to Rwanda in 1998/99 amounted to only AUD$45,000. There were no imports from Rwanda. See http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/fs/rwan.pdf

Outlook for 2000

Rwanda faces several internal and external challenges over the next year. On the external front, it is likely to remain militarily engaged in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) for the medium term at least. The Government has stated that it will not withdraw from the DRC until Hutu extremist groups (interhamwe and ex-FAR) responsible for the 1994 genocide are expelled from Congolese territory. This will be difficult to achieve, and Hutu rebel group have been stepping up attacks in eastern Congo, including inside west Rwanda recently. While involvement in the war in the DRC does not appear to be having a negative effect on the economy, it has strained Rwanda's relations with other countries in the region (see Foreign Relations above).

The challenge is to rebuild the economy and social infrastructure following the 1994 genocide. Providing adequate health and educational services to returning refugees and the rural population in general will be a major challenge. The Government will also be preoccupied with rebuilding the judicial system and processing the thousands of genocide suspects currently in the country's jails.

The 1994 genocide continues to dominate political debate. The Government can be expected to focus on issues such as the progress made by ICTR, the various enquiries into the UN's response to the genocide, and the role played by the Catholic Church in the events of 1994.

Rwanda is unlikely to move to a democratic system quickly. The Government plans to hold elections at Prefecture level, and eventually at National level, but the process of reconciliation is the key to a successful transition. Without meaningful reconciliation between ethnic groups, political pluralism is unlikely to work.

Source: http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/rwanda/rwanda_brief.html